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Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions
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Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Internet of Things".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2024 | Viewed by 9429

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Behnam Mobaraki

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bioengineering Institute of Technology, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya (UIC barcelona), Josep Trueta, s/n, 08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
Interests: building thermal monitoring; Internet of Things; intelligent sensors; wireless sensor network; cloud computing
Prof. Dr. Jose Turmo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya BarcelonaTech, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: low-cost sensors; wireless sensor network; structural system identification; building monitoring

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The rapid advancement of technology has led to the emergence of sensors and the Internet of Things (IoT) as key components in diverse fields of monitoring. Sensors are devices that can perceive and measure physical, structural, environmental, chemical, or biological phenomena, while the IoT refers to the network of interconnected devices capable of collecting and exchanging data. The integration of sensors and the IoT has revolutionized industries such as healthcare, agriculture, transportation, construction, and smart cities through real-time data collection, monitoring, and postprocessing of monitoring data, which allows for improved decision-making, automation, and efficiency. While the integration of these two technologies offers numerous advantages, it also poses challenges. These include ensuring data security and privacy, managing the vast amount of generated data, interoperability issues, and power constraints for IoT devices. This Special Issue focuses on the theme of sensors and IoT and brings together a collection of research articles that explore the latest advancements, applications, and challenges in this dynamic field. The topics of interest include, but are not limited to, a review of IoT and intelligent sensors, advancements in the battery life and security of IoT solutions, cost efficiency, interoperability of IoT solutions with each other, and real-time postprocessing.

Dr. Behnam Mobaraki
Prof. Dr. Jose Turmo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • intelligent sensors
  • IoT
  • real time monitoring
  • fog computing
  • edge computing
  • cloud computing
  • smart cities
  • smart grid
  • battery life
  • construction
  • literature review
  • wireless sensor network
  • low-cost sensors

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 4235 KiB  
Article
Flextory: Flexible Software Factory of IoT Data Consumers
by Rafael López-Gómez, Laura Panizo and María-del-Mar Gallardo
Sensors 2024, 24(8), 2550; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24082550 - 16 Apr 2024
Viewed by 313
Abstract
The success of the Internet of Things (IoT) has driven the development, among others, of many different software architectures for producing, processing, and analyzing heterogeneous data. In many cases, IoT applications share common features, such as the use of a platform or middleware, [...] Read more.
The success of the Internet of Things (IoT) has driven the development, among others, of many different software architectures for producing, processing, and analyzing heterogeneous data. In many cases, IoT applications share common features, such as the use of a platform or middleware, also known as message broker, that collects and manages data traffic between endpoints. However, in general, data processing is very dependent on the case study (sensors that send temperature data, drones that send images, etc.). Thus, the applications responsible for receiving and processing data, which we call consumers, have to be built ad hoc, since some of their elements have to be specially configured to solve specific needs of the case study. This paper presents Flextory, a software factory tool to make it easier for IoT developers to automatically construct configurable consumer applications, which we call FLEX-consumers. Flextory guides developers through the process of generating Java consumers by selecting some desired features such as, for instance, the particular communication protocol to be used. This way, the developer only has to concentrate on designing the algorithm to process the data. In short, the use of Flextory will result in consumer applications with configurable behavior, namely FLEX-consumers, that can connect to a messaging server (for example RabbitMQ) and process the received messages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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28 pages, 2702 KiB  
Article
EPOPTIS: A Monitoring-as-a-Service Platform for Internet-of-Things Applications
by Petros Zervoudakis, Nikolaos Karamolegkos, Eleftheria Plevridi, Pavlos Charalampidis and Alexandros Fragkiadakis
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2208; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24072208 - 29 Mar 2024
Viewed by 457
Abstract
The technology landscape has been dynamically reshaped by the rapid growth of the Internet of Things, introducing an era where everyday objects, equipped with smart sensors and connectivity, seamlessly interact to create intelligent ecosystems. IoT devices are highly heterogeneous in terms of software [...] Read more.
The technology landscape has been dynamically reshaped by the rapid growth of the Internet of Things, introducing an era where everyday objects, equipped with smart sensors and connectivity, seamlessly interact to create intelligent ecosystems. IoT devices are highly heterogeneous in terms of software and hardware, and many of them are severely constrained. This heterogeneity and potentially constrained nature creates new challenges in terms of security, privacy, and data management. This work proposes a Monitoring-as-a-Service platform for both monitoring and management purposes, offering a comprehensive solution for collecting, storing, and processing monitoring data from heterogeneous IoT networks for the support of diverse IoT-based applications. To ensure a flexible and scalable solution, we leverage the FIWARE open-source framework, also incorporating blockchain and smart contract technologies to establish a robust integrity verification mechanism for aggregated monitoring and management data. Additionally, we apply automated workflows to filter and label the collected data systematically. Moreover, we provide thorough evaluation results in terms of CPU and RAM utilization and average service latency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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26 pages, 810 KiB  
Article
Sybil Attacks Detection and Traceability Mechanism Based on Beacon Packets in Connected Automobile Vehicles
by Yaling Zhu, Jia Zeng, Fangchen Weng, Dan Han, Yiyu Yang, Xiaoqi Li and Yuqing Zhang
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2153; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24072153 - 27 Mar 2024
Viewed by 428
Abstract
Connected Automobile Vehicles (CAVs) enable cooperative driving and traffic management by sharing traffic information between them and other vehicles and infrastructures. However, malicious vehicles create Sybil vehicles by forging multiple identities and sharing false location information with CAVs, misleading their decisions and behaviors. [...] Read more.
Connected Automobile Vehicles (CAVs) enable cooperative driving and traffic management by sharing traffic information between them and other vehicles and infrastructures. However, malicious vehicles create Sybil vehicles by forging multiple identities and sharing false location information with CAVs, misleading their decisions and behaviors. The existing work on defending against Sybil attacks has almost exclusively focused on detecting Sybil vehicles, ignoring the traceability of malicious vehicles. As a result, they cannot fundamentally alleviate Sybil attacks. In this work, we focus on tracking the attack source of malicious vehicles by using a novel detection mechanism that relies on vehicle broadcast beacon packets. Firstly, the roadside units (RSUs) randomly instruct vehicles to perform customized key broadcasting and listening within communication range. This allows the vehicle to prove its physical presence by broadcasting. Then, RSU analyzes the beacon packets listened to by the vehicle and constructs a neighbor graph between the vehicles based on the customized particular fields in the beacon packets. Finally, the vehicle’s credibility is determined by calculating the edge success probability of vehicles in the neighbor graph, ultimately achieving the detection of Sybil vehicles and tracing malicious vehicles. The experimental results demonstrate that our scheme achieves the real-time detection and tracking of Sybil vehicles, with precision and recall rates of 98.53% and 95.93%, respectively, solving the challenge of existing detection schemes failing to combat Sybil attacks from the root. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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13 pages, 4546 KiB  
Article
Embedded Wireless Sensor for In Situ Concrete Internal Relative Humidity Monitoring
by Tai Ikumi, Ignasi Cairó, Jan Groeneveld, Antonio Aguado and Albert de la Fuente
Sensors 2024, 24(6), 1756; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24061756 - 08 Mar 2024
Viewed by 421
Abstract
The moisture content within the concrete pore network significantly influences the mechanical, thermal, and durability characteristics of concrete structures. This paper introduces a novel fully embedded wireless temperature and relative humidity sensor connected to an automatic acquisition system designed for continuous concrete monitoring. [...] Read more.
The moisture content within the concrete pore network significantly influences the mechanical, thermal, and durability characteristics of concrete structures. This paper introduces a novel fully embedded wireless temperature and relative humidity sensor connected to an automatic acquisition system designed for continuous concrete monitoring. Relative humidity measurements from this new sensor are compared with those obtained by a commercial system based on the borehole method at different depths (2.5 and 4.0 cm) and exposure conditions (oven drying and humid chamber). The results allow for proving that both systems provide consistent internal relative humidity measurements aligned with the exposure conditions and highlight the capability of fully embedded wireless sensors as a practical and reliable alternative to the conventional borehole method. Additionally, the continuous monitoring of the wireless cast-in sensor exhibits reliability during unintended temperature fluctuations, emphasizing the effectiveness of permanently installed sensors in promptly detecting unintended curing variations in real time. The continuous real-time information provided combined with the practicality of these sensors might assist construction managers to improve the quality control of the concrete curing process and shrinkage behavior, and ensure the integrity of concrete surface finishing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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21 pages, 2505 KiB  
Article
Cloud-Based Machine Learning Methods for Parameter Prediction in Textile Manufacturing
by Ray-I Chang, Jia-Ying Lin and Yu-Hsin Hung
Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1304; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24041304 - 18 Feb 2024
Viewed by 634
Abstract
In traditional textile manufacturing, downstream manufacturers use raw materials, such as Nylon and cotton yarns, to produce textile products. The manufacturing process involves warping, sizing, beaming, weaving, and inspection. Staff members typically use a trial-and-error approach to adjust the appropriate production parameters in [...] Read more.
In traditional textile manufacturing, downstream manufacturers use raw materials, such as Nylon and cotton yarns, to produce textile products. The manufacturing process involves warping, sizing, beaming, weaving, and inspection. Staff members typically use a trial-and-error approach to adjust the appropriate production parameters in the manufacturing process, which can be time consuming and a waste of resources. To enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of textile manufacturing economically, this study proposes a query-based learning method in regression analytics using existing manufacturing data. Query-based learning allows the model training to evolve its decision-making process through dynamic interactions with its solution space. In this study, predefined target parameters of quality factors were first used to validate the training results and create new training patterns. These new patterns were then imported into the solution space of the training model. In predicting product quality, the results show that the proposed query-based regression algorithm has a mean squared error of 0.0153, which is better than those of the original regression-related methods (Avg. mean squared error = 0.020). The trained model was deployed as an application programing interface (API) for cloud-based analytics and an extensive auto-notification service. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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28 pages, 6519 KiB  
Article
IoT-Based Framework for Digital Twins in the Industry 5.0 Era
by Ahmed Awouda, Emiliano Traini, Giulia Bruno and Paolo Chiabert
Sensors 2024, 24(2), 594; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24020594 - 17 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1083
Abstract
Digital twins are considered the next step in IoT-based cyber–physical systems; they allow for the real-time monitoring of assets, and they provide a comprehensive understanding of a system behavior, allowing for data-driven insights and informed choices. However, no comprehensive framework exists for the [...] Read more.
Digital twins are considered the next step in IoT-based cyber–physical systems; they allow for the real-time monitoring of assets, and they provide a comprehensive understanding of a system behavior, allowing for data-driven insights and informed choices. However, no comprehensive framework exists for the development of IoT-based digital twins. Moreover, the existing frameworks do not consider the aspects introduced by the Industry 5.0 paradigm, such as sustainability, human-centricity, and resilience. This paper proposes a framework based on the one defined as the outcome of a project funded by the European Union between 2010 and 2013 called the IoT Architectural Reference Model (IoT-A or IoT-ARM), with the aim of the development and implementation of a standard IoT framework that includes digital twins. This framework establishes and implements a standardized collection of architectural instruments for modeling IoT systems in the 5.0 era, serving as a benchmark for the design and implementation of an IoT architecture focused on digital twins and enabling the sustainability, resilience, and human-centricity of the information system. Furthermore, a proof of concept of a monitoring digital twin for a vertical farming system has been developed to test the validity of the framework, and a discussion of applications in the manufacturing and service sectors is presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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24 pages, 2204 KiB  
Article
Dynamic-Distance-Based Thresholding for UAV-Based Face Verification Algorithms
by Julio Diez-Tomillo, Jose Maria Alcaraz-Calero and Qi Wang
Sensors 2023, 23(24), 9909; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s23249909 - 18 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 814
Abstract
Face verification, crucial for identity authentication and access control in our digital society, faces significant challenges when comparing images taken in diverse environments, which vary in terms of distance, angle, and lighting conditions. These disparities often lead to decreased accuracy due to significant [...] Read more.
Face verification, crucial for identity authentication and access control in our digital society, faces significant challenges when comparing images taken in diverse environments, which vary in terms of distance, angle, and lighting conditions. These disparities often lead to decreased accuracy due to significant resolution changes. This paper introduces an adaptive face verification solution tailored for diverse conditions, particularly focusing on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based public safety applications. Our approach features an innovative adaptive verification threshold algorithm and an optimised operation pipeline, specifically designed to accommodate varying distances between the UAV and the human subject. The proposed solution is implemented based on a UAV platform and empirically compared with several state-of-the-art solutions. Empirical results have shown that an improvement of 15% in accuracy can be achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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17 pages, 6142 KiB  
Article
Autonomous Internet of Things (IoT) Data Reduction Based on Adaptive Threshold
by Handuo Zhang, Jun Na and Bin Zhang
Sensors 2023, 23(23), 9427; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s23239427 - 26 Nov 2023
Viewed by 919
Abstract
With the development of intelligent IoT applications, vast amounts of data are generated by various volume sensors. These sensor data need to be reduced at the sensor and then reconstructed later to save bandwidth and energy. As the reduced data increase, the reconstructed [...] Read more.
With the development of intelligent IoT applications, vast amounts of data are generated by various volume sensors. These sensor data need to be reduced at the sensor and then reconstructed later to save bandwidth and energy. As the reduced data increase, the reconstructed data become less accurate. Usually, the trade-off between reduction rate and reconstruction accuracy is controlled by the reduction threshold, which is calculated by experiments based on historical data. Considering the dynamic nature of IoT, a fixed threshold cannot balance the reduction rate with the reconstruction accuracy adaptively. Aiming to dynamically balance the reduction rate with the reconstruction accuracy, an autonomous IoT data reduction method based on an adaptive threshold is proposed. During data reduction, concept drift detection is performed to capture IoT dynamic changes and trigger threshold adjustment. During data reconstruction, a data trend is added to improve reconstruction accuracy. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated by comparing the proposed method with the basic Kalman filtering algorithm, LMS algorithm, and PIP algorithm on stationary and nonstationary datasets. Compared with not applying the adaptive threshold, on average, there is an 11.7% improvement in accuracy for the same reduction rate or a 17.3% improvement in reduction rate for the same accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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24 pages, 11858 KiB  
Article
A Vehicle-to-Grid System for Controlling Parameters of Microgrid System
by Jigar Sarda, Yashrajsinh Raj, Arpita Patel, Aasheesh Shukla, Satish Kachhatiya and Mangal Sain
Sensors 2023, 23(15), 6852; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s23156852 - 01 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1056
Abstract
The power system for large-scale adoption of hybrid electric vehicles can benefit from a distributed reserve provided by the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept. This study suggests a V2G technology that can effectively control frequency on a microgrid throughout a 24-h cycle. When usage is [...] Read more.
The power system for large-scale adoption of hybrid electric vehicles can benefit from a distributed reserve provided by the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept. This study suggests a V2G technology that can effectively control frequency on a microgrid throughout a 24-h cycle. When usage is at its lowest in the spring or fall, a microgrid is intended to be large enough to simulate a community of 2000 households. A 1:5 ratio of cars to households is realized by modelling 400 electric vehicles (EVs) as a basic model, indicating a typical case in the future. An in-depth analysis of the voltage, current, reactive, and active power is carried out for a microgrid. By coordinating control of diesel generation, renewable energy source (RES) generation, power exchange, and EV generation, the system frequency of a microgrid can be managed by regulating load demand with V2G devices. The proposed microgrid with V2G effectively manages energy and reduces the uncertain and variable nature of RES power generation with enhanced performance. System parameter variations have been investigated for various operating scenarios, and it has been discovered that error is confined to less than 5%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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Review

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21 pages, 3499 KiB  
Review
A Survey of Techniques for Discovering, Using, and Paying for Third-Party IoT Sensors
by Anas Dawod, Dimitrios Georgakopoulos, Prem Prakash Jayaraman and Ampalavanapillai Nirmalathas
Sensors 2024, 24(8), 2539; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24082539 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 356
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) includes billions of sensors and actuators (which we refer to as IoT devices) that harvest data from the physical world and send it via the Internet to IoT applications to provide smart IoT services and products. Deploying, managing, [...] Read more.
The Internet of Things (IoT) includes billions of sensors and actuators (which we refer to as IoT devices) that harvest data from the physical world and send it via the Internet to IoT applications to provide smart IoT services and products. Deploying, managing, and maintaining IoT devices for the exclusive use of an individual IoT application is inefficient and involves significant costs and effort that often outweigh the benefits. On the other hand, enabling large numbers of IoT applications to share available third-party IoT devices, which are deployed and maintained independently by a variety of IoT device providers, reduces IoT application development costs, time, and effort. To achieve a positive cost/benefit ratio, there is a need to support the sharing of third-party IoT devices globally by providing effective IoT device discovery, use, and pay between IoT applications and third-party IoT devices. A solution for global IoT device sharing must be the following: (1) scalable to support a vast number of third-party IoT devices, (2) interoperable to deal with the heterogeneity of IoT devices and their data, and (3) IoT-owned, i.e., not owned by a specific individual or organization. This paper surveys existing techniques that support discovering, using, and paying for third-party IoT devices. To ensure that this survey is comprehensive, this paper presents our methodology, which is inspired by Systematic Literature Network Analysis (SLNA), combining the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) methodology with Citation Network Analysis (CNA). Finally, this paper outlines the research gaps and directions for novel research to realize global IoT device sharing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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40 pages, 7330 KiB  
Review
Non-Terrestrial Networks for Energy-Efficient Connectivity of Remote IoT Devices in the 6G Era: A Survey
by Stefanos Plastras, Dimitrios Tsoumatidis, Dimitrios N. Skoutas, Angelos Rouskas, Georgios Kormentzas and Charalabos Skianis
Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1227; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s24041227 - 15 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1778
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) is gaining popularity and market share, driven by its ability to connect devices and systems that were previously siloed, enabling new applications and services in a cost-efficient manner. Thus, the IoT fuels societal transformation and enables groundbreaking innovations [...] Read more.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is gaining popularity and market share, driven by its ability to connect devices and systems that were previously siloed, enabling new applications and services in a cost-efficient manner. Thus, the IoT fuels societal transformation and enables groundbreaking innovations like autonomous transport, robotic assistance, and remote healthcare solutions. However, when considering the Internet of Remote Things (IoRT), which refers to the expansion of IoT in remote and geographically isolated areas where neither terrestrial nor cellular networks are available, internet connectivity becomes a challenging issue. Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs) are increasingly gaining popularity as a solution to provide connectivity in remote areas due to the growing integration of satellites and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) with cellular networks. In this survey, we provide the technological framework for NTNs and Remote IoT, followed by a classification of the most recent scientific research on NTN-based IoRT systems. Therefore, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research in IoRT and identify emerging research areas with high potential. In conclusion, we present and discuss 3GPP’s roadmap for NTN standardization, which aims to establish an energy-efficient IoRT environment in the 6G era. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Intelligent Sensors and IoT Solutions)
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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: Insulator Defect Detection Algorithm Based on Multi-Scale Detection Transformer
Author: Zou
Highlights: 1. To alleviate the confusion between the foreground and background, we introduce a context-based attention module to fully learn the relationship between defects and their backgrounds. 2. We introduce the insulators defect IDIoU loss to optimize the instability issues caused by small defects in the matching process, thereby accelerating training speed.

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