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The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II

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A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Farming Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2023) | Viewed by 25956

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Dr. Norman Uphoff

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SRI International Network and Resources Center, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
Interests: agroecology; soil microbiology and ecology; sustainable development; agricultural and rural development
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Dear Colleagues,

The system of rice intensification, developed some four decades ago in Madagascar, started receiving international attention only after 2002. As SRI methods have repeatedly been found to evoke more productive and robust rice phenotypes from given genotypes, its use has spread, and the methodology has now been validated in >60 countries. During this process, the practices that apply SRI’s basic principles have been diversified and modified. For example, SRI is now applied for rainfed rice, not only to irrigated cultivation; direct seeding is becoming an alternative to transplanting for crop establishment. SRI principles have also been extrapolated to other crops, such as wheat, sugarcane, millet, mustard, teff, etc.

This issue will present findings on ways in which SRI concepts are being utilized in diverse environments with modified practices, such as reducing labor requirements through mechanization and improving the production and profitability of crops other than rice. Various objectives are also being served, such as enhancing crops’ resilience to the stresses of climate change, reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, increasing the micronutrient content of the grain, and conserving crop biodiversity. This issue will thus update our understanding and application of the original ideas that constitute SRI, welcoming critical and empirical evaluations of SRI.

Dr. Norman Uphoff
Guest Editor

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Keywords

system of rice intensification
system of crop intensification
rice
climate change resilience
greenhouse gas emissions

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 197 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction to Special Issue on “The System of Rice Intensification (SRI)—Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability”

by Norman Uphoff

Agronomy 2024, 14(5), 909; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy14050909 - 26 Apr 2024

Viewed by 640

Abstract

The ideas and methods that constitute the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) were first synthesized in Madagascar by Henri de Laulanié in the early 1980s [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

Research

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19 pages, 1516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of System of Rice Intensification Applications and Alternatives in India: Agronomic, Economic, Environmental, Energy, and Other Effects

by Rapolu Mahender Kumar, Padmavathi Chintalapati, Santosha Rathod, Tapeshwar Vidhan Singh, Surekha Kuchi, Prasad Babu B. B. Mannava, Patharath Chandran Latha, Nethi Somasekhar, Nirmala Bandumula, Srinivas Prasad Madamsetty, J. V. N. S. Prasad, Shanmugam Vijayakumar, Dayyala Srinivas, Banugu Sreedevi, Mangal Deep Tuti, Melekote Nagabhushan Arun, Banda Sailaja and Raman Meenakshi Sundaram

Agronomy 2023, 13(10), 2492; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13102492 - 27 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1294

Abstract

Initial evaluations of the System of Rice Intensification in India and elsewhere focused mainly on its impacts on yield and income, and usually covered just one or two seasons. Researchers at the ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research have conducted a more comprehensive evaluation of SRI methods over six years (six wet and six dry seasons), comparing them with three alternatives: modified, partially mechanized SRI (MSRI) to reduce labor requirements; direct-seeded rice (DSR) as an alternative method for growing rice; and conventional transplanting of rice with flooding of fields (CTF). Grain yield with SRI methods was found to be about 50% higher than with CTF (6.35 t ha⁻¹ vs. 4.27 t ha⁻¹), while the MSRI yield was essentially the same (6.34 t ha⁻¹), 16% more than with DSR (5.45 t ha⁻¹). Water productivity with SRI methods was 5.32–6.85 kg ha-mm⁻¹, followed by 4.14–5.72 kg ha-mm⁻¹ for MSRI, 5.06–5.11 kg ha-mm⁻¹ for DSR, and 3.52–4.56 kg ha-mm⁻¹ for CTF. In comparison with CTF, SRI methods significantly enhanced soil microbial populations over time: bacteria by 12%, fungi by 8%, and actinomycetes by 20%. Biological activity in the rhizosphere was also higher as indicated by 8.5% greater dehydrogenase and 16% more FDA enzymes in soil under SRI management. Similarly, an indicator of soil organic matter, glucosidase activity, was 78% higher compared to CTF. SRI enhanced the relative abundance of beneficial microbial-feeding nematodes by 7.5% compared to CTF, while that of plant-pathogenic nematodes was 7.5% lower under SRI. Relative to conventional methods, SRI management reduced GHG emissions by 21%, while DSR reduced them by 23%, and MSRI by 13%, compared to standard rice-growing practice. Economic analysis showed both gross and net economic returns to be higher with SRI than with the other management systems evaluated. While the six-year study documented many advantages of SRI crop management, it also showed that MSRI is a promising adaptation that provides similar benefits but with lower labor requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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13 pages, 289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Best-Bet System of Rice Intensification for Sustainable Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Production in Northwestern Nigeria

by François Siéwé, Henry Egwuma, Adunni Sanni, Ben Ahmed, Sunday T. Abu, Cordelia O. Nwahia, Djomo Choumbou Raoul Fani, Aisha Abdulkadir and Elijah O. Ogunsola

Agronomy 2023, 13(8), 2049; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13082049 - 02 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1752

Abstract

System of Rice Intensification (SRI) practices are expected to be used in location-specific ways and thus will vary somewhat across countries and regions. This study undertook to identify a ‘best-bet’ version of SRI for conditions in northwestern Nigeria, considering what is feasible for farmer use. Two years of experimental data from 260 farmer-managed rice plots evaluating four of the SRI practices in Zamfara State were analyzed. The variables evaluated were seedling age at transplanting, plant density, irrigation schedule, and fertilizer application. Farm budget analysis showed that the best-bet SRI practices most productive given the natural environment and farming system were transplanting 11-day-old seedlings at 25 cm × 25 cm spacing, with alternate wetting-and-drying of fields, as well as providing full compost plus some inorganic fertilization. Net economic returns were found to be highest with best-bet SRI practices and ranged from USD 1450–2120 ha⁻¹. While rice production was profitable under both SRI and more conventional management, the return on investment was at least 40% higher with SRI practices than with the other practices evaluated. Based on our data and analysis, we recommend that the Nigerian government and its development partners prioritize and expand the testing and promotion of SRI in the northwest and other regions of the country. This initiative can significantly enhance farmers’ incomes and, ultimately, bolster food security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

9 pages, 546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Savings, Yield, and Economic Benefits of Using SRI Methods with Deficit Irrigation in Water-Scarce Southern Iraq

by Mohammed Khalid Mohammed, Khidhir Abbas Hameed and Abdulkadhim Jawad Musa

Agronomy 2023, 13(6), 1481; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13061481 - 27 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1437

Abstract

This study evaluated what intervals of irrigation in conjunction with the use of SRI methods could achieve the greatest economic, as well as agronomic returns when growing irrigated rice under the water-deficit conditions of southern Iraq. A field study at the Al-Mishkhab Rice Research Station in southern Iraq recorded input and output data for three different irrigation regimes: continuous submergence of the rice crop; irrigation at 3-day intervals; and irrigation at 7-day intervals. Benefit–cost analysis showed 3-day intervals with SRI methods, giving the highest net returns and highest internal rate of return, indicating that the continuous irrigation of rice fields is a waste of water, with neither agronomic nor economic benefit. In Iraq, there are large opportunity costs for any unnecessary use of irrigation water. The highest water productivity was achieved with 7-day intervals of irrigation together with SRI methods, but this entails some sacrifice of the yield ha⁻¹, as 13% less grain is produced than with continuous submergence of the crop. With 7-day intervals compared to 3-day intervals, water-saving was 44%, but compared to continuous submergence of the crop, the saving was 72%. This large amount of water could, if redeployed, enable many more farmers to cultivate larger areas of the land, increasing total rice production for Iraq, and some of the water saved could be put to other, high-value uses. It would thus benefit the country and many farmers if, in return for rice farmers’ using irrigation water more productively, those who currently grow rice could be persuaded to accept a grain yield somewhat lower than they could produce with 3-day intervals of irrigation and SRI crop management. The redeployment of water saved by having longer irrigation intervals coupled with SRI methods could raise Iraq’s rice output more than enough to compensate the farmers for forgoing some attainable production by their accepting 7-day irrigation intervals. If no such incentive scheme could be established, there would still be a significant benefit for farmers and for the country by moving to SRI production methods with 3-day intervals rather than continuing the present practice of routinely flooding rice fields and using conventional methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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15 pages, 3147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insect Pest Incidence with the System of Rice Intensification: Results of a Multi-Location Study and a Meta-Analysis

by Padmavathi Chintalapati, Santosha Rathod, Naganna Repalle, Nadimpalli Rama Gopala Varma, Kolandhaivelu Karthikeyan, Sanjay Sharma, Rapolu Mahender Kumar and Gururaj Katti

Agronomy 2023, 13(4), 1100; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13041100 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4935

Abstract

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) developed in Madagascar has spread to many parts of the world, including India. This study assessing insect pest prevalence on rice grown with SRI vs. conventional methods at multiple locations in India was prompted by reports that SRI-managed rice plants are healthier and more resistant to pest and disease damage. Field experiments were conducted under the All-India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project over a 5-year period. The split-plot design assessed both cultivation methods and different cultivars, hybrids and improved varieties. Across the eight locations, SRI methods of cultivation showed a lower incidence of stem borer, planthoppers, and gall midge compared to conventional methods. Whorl maggots and thrips, on the other hand, were observed to be higher. Grain yield was significantly higher with SRI management across all locations. Higher ash, cellulose, hemicellulose, as well as silica content in rice plants under SRI management could explain at least in part the SRI plants’ resistance to pest damage. Analysis of guild composition revealed that in SRI plots, there were more natural enemies (insect predators and parasitoids) present and fewer crop pests (phytophages). A meta-analysis that considered other published research on this subject revealed a lower incidence of dead hearts, white ear-heads, and leaf folders, along with higher grain yield, in SRI plots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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13 pages, 1457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rice Plants’ Resistance to Sheath Blight Infection Is Increased by the Synergistic Effects of Trichoderma Inoculation with SRI Management

by Febri Doni, Anizan Isahak, F. Fathurrahman and Wan Mohtar Wan Yusoff

Agronomy 2023, 13(3), 711; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13030711 - 27 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2691

Abstract

The capability of endophytic Trichoderma spp. to reduce sheath blight disease in rice caused by Rhizoctonia solani was assessed under the growth conditions established by practices of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), compared to those of standard irrigated rice cultivation. Rice seeds inoculated with a local isolate of the fungus Trichoderma asperellum SL2 were grown under respective SRI and conventional conditions with the inoculated or uninoculated plants and then infected with the pathogen R. solani. It was seen that inoculation with this strain of Trichoderma protected rice plants against R. solani infection while enhancing plant growth, photosynthetic rate, and stomatal conductance. The biocontrol effectiveness of inoculation with a particular strain of Trichoderma was significantly greater under SRI management compared to conventional cultivation. This is the first report on how a crop management system, in this case, SRI, can influence the biocontrol effectiveness of Trichoderma spp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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Review

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16 pages, 921 KiB

Open AccessReview

Exploring the Impact of Alternate Wetting and Drying and the System of Rice Intensification on Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Review of Rice Cultivation Practices

by James Dahlgreen and Adam Parr

Agronomy 2024, 14(2), 378; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy14020378 - 16 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1878

Abstract

Rice provides ~20% of human dietary energy and, for many people, a similar share of their protein. Rice cultivation, however, produces significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, comparable to those from the aviation sector. The main GHG from rice production is methane, mostly a result of conventional rice cultivation (CRC) keeping rice fields continuously flooded during the crop cycle. There is extensive evidence that alternate wetting and drying (AWD) of rice fields substantially reduces methane emissions. AWD is one component of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an agroecological approach to the management of plants, water, soil, and nutrients. This article reviews field studies measuring GHG emissions associated with the adoption of AWD and SRI. The review confirms that both AWD and SRI offer substantial reductions in methane emissions per hectare compared with CRC. These benefits are, however, partly offset by increases in emissions of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. The studies also show that SRI (but not AWD) improves yield and therefore further reduces GHG emissions per kg of rice. The review concludes that while both AWD and SRI substantially reduce emissions per hectare and per kilogram of rice, SRI can simultaneously contribute to food security while addressing the drivers of climate change. Further investigation of carbon emissions and sequestration under different rice cultivation methods is needed to strengthen the evidence base. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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14 pages, 1548 KiB

Open AccessReview

Utilizing the Genetic Potentials of Traditional Rice Varieties and Conserving Rice Biodiversity with System of Rice Intensification Management

by Yheni Dwiningsih

Agronomy 2023, 13(12), 3015; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13123015 - 08 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1325

Abstract

The genetic potentials of rice cultivars will need to be expressed to their fullest if global rice production is to be expanded enough by 2050 to meet the increased demand of the expanding population while the availability of land and water per capita dwindles. New and ‘improved’ rice varieties have contributed greatly to increased production over the past 50 years, but the rate of rice yield increase based on genetic changes has declined in recent decades compared with the early years of the Green Revolution. In fact, many rice consumers continue to prefer to consume ‘traditional’ rice varieties (referred to also as local, native, unimproved, or indigenous varieties) because of their taste, aroma, texture, and other qualities. Furthermore, many farmers prefer to cultivate these varieties because of their better adaptation to local climatic and soil conditions and their evolved resistance to endemic stresses. The practices that comprise the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), including transplanting rice seedlings at a young age, wide spacing between plants, keeping the soil well aerated rather than inundated, and enhancing soil organic matter, provide traditional rice varieties with micro-environments that are more favorable for the expression of their genetic and agronomic potentials. Interactions among rice plants, soil characteristics, water, energy, and other inputs improve the phenotypic and physiological performance of rice plants. This paper considers how the cultivation of traditional rice varieties with SRI methods can raise yields, reduce farmers’ costs of production, and generate higher incomes while contributing to the conservation of rice biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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16 pages, 849 KiB

Open AccessReview

Compatibility between Conservation Agriculture and the System of Rice Intensification

by Francesco Carnevale Zampaolo, Amir Kassam, Theodor Friedrich, Adam Parr and Norman Uphoff

Agronomy 2023, 13(11), 2758; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13112758 - 01 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1484

Abstract

Conservation Agriculture (CA) and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) are both agroecologically-oriented production systems that support more productive, sustainable, and resource-conserving farming, with synergies arising from their respective assemblages of reinforcing agronomic methods. This review article examines the compatibility between CA and SRI, considering examples of their being utilized in complementary ways. The application of CA principles enhances the growth, yield, and performance of the crops grown under the cropping system as well as the health and resilience of the whole ecosystem. SRI practices create more favorable conditions for the development of crop plants below- and above-ground, including conditions that can be enhanced by CA management. SRI practices such as reduced plant density m⁻² can elicit a better phenotypic expression of the genetic potentials of crops grown with CA. For these two agronomic systems to converge at the field level, some of their respective practices for plant, soil, water, and nutrient management need to be modified or aligned. One such adaptation is to practice SRI in CA systems on permanent, no-till, mulch-covered raised beds, with rainfall or irrigation water in the furrows between the beds furnishing and controlling water and providing weed suppression and improved nutrient recycling. SRI rice cropping can benefit from the CA practices of no-tillage, mulch soil cover, and diversified cropping, both in paddies and on raised beds. Several examples have shown that this convergence of cropping systems is feasible for smallholding farmers as well as for larger-scale producers and also that SRI practices within a CA system are amenable to considerable mechanization. Further research and experimentation are needed to identify and assess appropriate practices for capitalizing upon their synergies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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30 pages, 3919 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

SRI 2.0 and Beyond: Sequencing the Protean Evolution of the System of Rice Intensification

by Norman Uphoff

Agronomy 2023, 13(5), 1253; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13051253 - 28 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2264

Abstract

As the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has evolved in many ways and in several directions over the past two decades, this review follows the software-naming convention of labeling SRI’s different and subsequent versions as SRI 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, etc. In agroecology as with software, variants are not necessarily linear and can establish new directions as well as the further evolution of existing ones. This overview reviews how rainfed SRI, direct-seeded SRI, mechanized SRI, and other modifications of the initial SRI methodology have emerged since 2000, and how versions of SRI have been improvised to improve the production of other crops beyond rice, like wheat, finger millet, maize, and sugar cane. SRI thinking and practices are also being incorporated into diversified farming systems, broadening the logic and impact of SRI beyond monoculture rice cultivation, and SRI methods are also being used to achieve broader objectives like the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the conservation of biodiversity. SRI observations and research have been contributing to the crop and soil sciences by focusing attention on plant roots and soil ecology and by showing how crop management can elicit more desirable phenotypes from a given genotype. Cooperation regarding SRI among farmers, civil-society actors, scientists, private sector agents, governments, and funding agencies has begun introducing noteworthy changes within the agricultural sector, and this collaboration is expected to deepen and expand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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18 pages, 5434 KiB

Open AccessReview

Do System of Rice Intensification Practices Produce Rice Plants Phenotypically and Physiologically Superior to Conventional Practice?

by Amod Kumar Thakur, Krishna Gopal Mandal, Om Prakash Verma and Rajeeb Kumar Mohanty

Agronomy 2023, 13(4), 1098; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13041098 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4308

Abstract

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an agro-ecological approach to rice cultivation developed in Madagascar, has generated considerable interest worldwide. Having not been developed at a research establishment but rather from observation and testing on farmers’ fields, SRI attracted considerable controversy, for example, with unwarranted objections that it lacked of scientific evidence, and being characterized as based on ‘unconfirmed field observations’ (UFOs). One 2004 article concluded that “the system of rice intensification does not fundamentally change the physiological yield potential of rice”. This assertion was not based on any physiological examination of rice plants grown using SRI methodology, however, or on any systematic comparison with what would be considered as best management practices (BMPs), recommended practices (RPs), or farmer practices (FPs). Other dismissals of SRI have had contestable data selection, analytical methods, and presentation of results. The published literature provides abundant evidence that the earlier evaluations of SRI were either not well-informed or objective, and possibly, they discouraged others from embarking on systematic evaluations of their own. This article examines the results of 78 studies in the published literature where SRI results were explicitly compared with RPs, including BMPs or FPs. The results from 27 countries, plus several large-scale evaluations, show that in 80% of the evaluations, grain yield was higher under SRI than with RPs or FPs. SRI gave 24% higher grain yield than RPs and 56% more than FPs, while reducing seed, water, and fertilizer inputs. Beyond the descriptive evidence, this paper considers that the phenotypical changes and physiological improvements in SRI-grown rice plants could account for the reported enhancement in yield. More research remains to be undertaken to elucidate casual mechanisms, but abundant evidence shows that this is a subject deserving considerable scientific effort. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability-II)

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